Evidence for past metalworking survives in the archaeological record in a number of different ways. Many of the larger metalworking sites survive as distinct landscape features due to the construction…
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Project management techniques are widely used to plan and monitor the progress of archaeological projects. Project management makes the aims, objectives, methods, timetable, risks and outcomes explicit. It is common…
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Geophysical techniques have become a standard tool in archaeological fieldwork. This datasheet addresses both the recognition of metallurgical features within general surveys and the design of surveys to meet metallurgical…
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The excavation of archaeological sites often yields a range of material evidence for metalworking. This datasheet is intended to provide an introduction to the post-excavation study of such evidence. The…
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Metals and related materials provide a great deal of information on the ways in which they were manufactured and used. Some of this information can be gained from a simple…
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The use of an instrument to determine the presence of particular elements in a material/sample. The range of elements which can be detected as well the accuracy, precision and sensitivity…
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X-radiography is an imaging technique that has numerous applications in archaeology and archaeometallurgy. The primary uses are to examine form, structure and condition of artefacts in order to provide identifications…
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Even after investigation and publication, metallurgical samples offer a valuable resource for future researchers. Experience has shown that such material is too frequently lost. This datasheet provides guidance to ensure…
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Metals are crystalline materials that are good conductors of both electricity and heat; they are usually malleable, ductile and shiny. They are commonly divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals; the…
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Copper (Cu) is a soft, reddish metal which has been used for the production of a wide range of artefacts. Since the end of the Bronze Age it has been…
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Tin (Sn) is a soft, silvery-white metal which has been used for the production of a wide range of artefacts. Tin has occasionally been used on its own but most…
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This datasheet provides a brief introduction to the manufacture of several non-ferrous metals (zinc, mercury, antimony and arsenic) that have not been covered elsewhere in this series. The metals covered…
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The manufacture iron from its ores can be carried out using a variety of smelting technologies. These can be broadly divided into the direct and indirect processes. The indirect process…
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Although an important aspect of medieval and earlier societies, the manufacture of steel was industrialised during the post-medieval period. Many complementary techniques were developed which often operated at the same…
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This datasheet summarises blacksmithing proceses, buildings and residues.
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This datasheet summarises the history of foundries, their buildings and residues.
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Fuels for metallurgical and other industrial uses were derived from wood or from coal. The wood-based fuels comprised charcoal, white coal (kiln-dried wood) and fire-wood. Mineral coal was used either…
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Crucibles and moulds are fairly easy to recognise and their identification should alert the fieldworker to the presence of metalworking on site. This provides an early opportunity to link the…
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The purity of gold could be estimated by using a touchstone but the only effective way of determining the purity of silver was by assaying (see below). Whatever their purity,…
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Unlike all the other metals used in the past, iron was produced and worked only in the solid state. This technology is called the 'Direct Process' of iron manufacture, ie…
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There is no geophysical method dedicated to the location, identification and analysis of early metalworking sites. There has only been limited application of these techniques to the study of such…
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There are many variables in the smelting process, including the ores, the fuel and the clays used, the furnace construction, the method of blowing the furnace and the way in…
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The smelting of iron by the direct process results in a bloom, which must be refined to produce forgeable iron stock. Blooms produced from bog ores in a non-tapping furnace…
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About 1500 currency bars and other forms of trade iron have been found in Britain, including two doublepointed ingots of continental type. Detailed examination of most of the 400 surviving…
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Identifying the nature and extent of metalworking processes on an archaeological site relies on adequate recovery and recording of the evidence of these activities. This sheet provides advice on how…
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Both types of hammerscale generally survive well in archaeological deposits and often retain their original metallic-lustrous sheen. They are generally too small to be recognised by the excavator, but can…
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Metallography requires the removal of small samples, which are then mounted in a resin or bakelite block, polished and etched in dilute acid, before examination under a metallurgical microscope. This…
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The composition of artefacts or samples can be determined by chemical analysis. The method of analysis chosen depends mainly on the answers needed. Some types of chemical analysis are quantitative,…
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X-radiography is a rapid imaging technique which is particularly useful for examining archaeological metalwork. The process is similar to conventional medical radiography and the two-dimensional negative image is usually produced…
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Even after investigation and publication, metallurgical samples offer a valuable resource for future researchers. Experience has shown that such material is too frequently lost. This data sheet provides guidance to…
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This datasheet is aimed at field workers in the early stages of projects, when the possibility of finding the remains of metalworking activity should be considered. The value of forward…
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